Introduction

Site:	Moodle ZČU
Course:	KEV/EMB Elektromobilita - podklady k výuce
Book:	Introduction

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Date:	Sunday, 8 November 2026, 10:07 PM

1. Motivation
2. History
3. Motivation in the 21st century
4. Situation in the EU
- 4.1. European legislation
- 4.2. EU limits for CO2 emissions
5. Limiting factors for customers
6. Technology and marketing
7. Examples for performance comparison

1. Motivation

Historie – the great horse manure crisis 1894

In the 19th century, horses were the main driving force behind transport.
At the same time, the population of the big city is growing very fast.
Cities have problems with large numbers of animals.

_{http://30494445.weebly.com/

https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions

https://www.businesshorsepower.com/}

2. History

Electric cars

The first cars offer a way out of the transport crisis.
Electric cars were initially the dominant means, especially in American cities.
Subsequently, electric cars for many decades replaced cars with internal combustion engines.

_{https://mashable.com}

3. Motivation in the 21st century

Main aspects

Over the last decade, the field of electromobility has received unprecedented attention.
The beginning of the modern era of electromobility around 2010
The period of global economic crisis
New business for many companies
The road to recovery of the automotive industry
Emission pressures - tightening limits
Technology - Lithium-based batteries

Obstacles

Conservative car market
Skepticism, especially criticism of the range
Missing charging infrastructure
New technologies for manufacturers (e.g. car manufacturers used to voltage of 12 V only)
Missing car service network

Over the last decade, the field of electromobility has received unprecedented attention. The issue of electrification of road transport is the subject of discussions of various groups, including politicians, journalists, car manufacturers, etc. Unlike previous periods, we can see an intensive increase in activity in this area since about 2010. Currently, the majority of carmakers offer one or more electrified models.

3.1. Financial crisis of 2008 and decline in car sales

Decline in car sales in Germany in 2010

Decline in car sales in U.S. in 2010

_{https://www.ceicdata.com/

www.morgancom.com/}

3.2. Pollutant emissions

Probably the most important motivation for the electrification of road transport is the emissions of internal combustion engines.

Internal combustion engine cars emit a number of pollutants directly on the streets.
Cities in particular are plagued by smog, which is largely driven by traffic.
In some parts of the world, smog is the main motivation for switching to electric cars (especially China).

3.3. Carbon dioxide emissions

In addition to pollutant emissions, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions causing the so-called greenhouse effect and possible climate change are also problematic. At the same time, total CO₂ emissions have increased significantly in recent decades, and humanity currently produces approximately 40 billion tons of CO₂ per year.

Annual CO₂ emissions by region (2017)

According to measurements made by the Mauna Loa observatories in the Hawaiian Islands, the concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere is currently around 410 parts per million (ppm), while in the pre-industrial era (before 1750) the CO₂ concentration did not exceed 300 ppm.

Vývoj koncentrace atmosférického CO₂ (ppm – částic na 1 milion)

Carbon-burning process

Combustion of 1 kg of carbon produces 3.67 kg of CO₂.
Due to the C content, for example in petrol (C4H10 to C12H30) in an amount of about 83% and a density of 0.73 kg / l, 1 liter of petrol contains about 0.61 kg of carbon.
Its combustion produces 2.24 kg of CO₂.
At a consumption of 4.1 l / 100 km, it is 9.2 kg of CO₂, or 92 g / km.
Combustion of a 50 l tank produces 112 kg of CO₂.
Elementary stoichiometric merging equation
1 kg C + 2.67 kg O₂ → 3.67 kg CO₂

_{https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/

https://ourworldindata.org/co2-and-other-greenhouse-gas-emissions}

3.4. Growing markets

The market for electric or hybrid cars is growing, and growth is predicted in the future as well.
The absence of an electrically powered model in the product portfolio currently means a noticeable loss for the carmaker.

Number of EVs available on the market in Europe

Development of production of car types in the EU

_{https://www.transportenvironment.org/}

3.5. Other factors

Existing technology - a radical change in the last 10 years

Population concentration in large cities

Declining numbers of new oil fields

_{https://peakoil.com/enviroment/climate-change-and-peak-oil-two-sides-of-the-same-coin}

4. Situation in the EU

In the EU, the issue of CO₂ is emphasized.
Vehicle electrification is seen as a way to lower CO₂, especially in the EU.
In terms of the overall CO2 balance of the car, however, it is a complex chain involving

extraction of raw materials,
fuel production and electricity production,
transport and transfer,
production of car and traction batteries,
recharging, combustion and energy conversion in a specific type of engine.

The resulting balance may not necessarily be the most favorable for purely electric cars.

Efficiency

From the point of view of the drive itself, CO₂ emissions are always about the conversion efficiency of a particular technology.
With high combustion efficiency and low losses of further conversions, own greenhouse gas emissions will be significantly reduced.
In the case of pollutant emissions (excluding CO₂), the technology of purely electric cars has a clear benefit, especially in urban agglomerations and other places with a high concentration of traffic.

_{https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/198746}

4.1. European legislation

In the countries of the European Union, the effort to reduce emissions has been reflected directly in legislation for more than ten years. In 1998, the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) undertook to reduce average emissions from new passenger cars sold to 140 g CO₂ per kilometer per car by 2008. The following year, the Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association (JAMA) and the Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association (KAMA) also undertook to reduce emissions to 140 g CO₂ / km by 2009, with average new passenger car emissions of 160 g CO₂ / km in 2007.

The results of the review of the Community's emission reduction strategy are evaluated in 2007, showing that progress has been made towards achieving the emission target of 140 g CO₂ / km for new passenger cars by 2008/09. However, the following target of 120 g CO₂ / km by 2012 is at risk and the Commission proposes a legislative framework to reach the Community target and sets a limit of 130 g CO₂ / km for category M1 (passenger cars) for 2012. However, the limit is not fixed. from the weight of the cars.

Regulation No 443/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars is adopted in 2009 as part of the Community's integrated approach to reduce CO₂ emissions from light-duty vehicles. The regulation calculates a 30% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared to 1990 and sets a limit for the average new fleet emissions of 95 g CO₂ / km for 2020. At the same time, the regulation declares that a sufficient amount should be allocated from the budget. and that the regulation aims to create incentives for the car industry to invest in new technologies. The regulation sets a basic limit of 130 g CO₂ / km for the years 2012 - 2015, which is recalculated according to the weight of the vehicle. The regulation already provides for fines for exceeding emission limits.

In addition, car manufacturers can obtain so-called supercredits for each vehicle with emissions of less than 50 g CO₂ / km. For automakers, this practically means a significant reduction in the emissions balance and the risk of exceeding the limits for each electrified car that appears in the fleet.

In the following years, the first test prototypes and prototype fleets of electric cars began to appear at most car manufacturers, testing took place, experience was gathered, including analyzes of competition solutions, and new development departments were built. Although there are many test projects and prototype cars from previous decades, the beginnings of modern electromobility with massive development and a real impact on the product portfolio can be dated to the years 2009-2010.

In 2011, Regulation No. 510/2011 setting emission standards for new light commercial vehicles will be added.

The Paris Agreement, which is the output of the Paris Climate Conference (2015), aims to keep the increase in global average temperature well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. In this context, the European Union aims to reduce domestic greenhouse gas emissions by at least 40% by 2030 compared to 1990. This target has been endorsed as the intended contribution of the Union and its Member States to the Paris Agreement.

In 2017, a new test procedure for measuring CO₂ emissions and fuel consumption of passenger cars and light commercial vehicles, set out in EU Commission Implementing Regulations 2017/1151 and 2017/1152, will come into force. The original New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) is moving to the World Harmonized Light-Duty Vehicles Test Procedure (WLTP). This test procedure aims to better emulate the conditions in real operation and bring the measured CO₂ emissions and fuel consumption closer to the actual values outside the laboratory environment. The methodology also includes the RDE (Real Driving Emissions) test, where vehicle emissions are measured directly in real traffic using a portable measuring system.

However, the introduction of a new methodology for determining fuel consumption and emissions means a deterioration of previous results for manufacturers and more difficult achievement of new emission limits. The new methodology according to WLTP is to be fully applied after the transitional period 2017 - 2020 (monitored emissions according to NEDC and WLTP) from 2021.
REGULATION (EU) 2019/631 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 April 2019 laying down CO₂ emission performance standards for new passenger cars and new light commercial vehicles is issued in 2019. With effect from 1 January 2020, this Regulation sets an average emissions target for EU fleets of new EU-registered passenger cars of 95 g CO₂ / km and an average emissions target for new light commercial vehicles registered in the EU of 147 g CO₂ / km. . In addition, the regulation states that, for example, for passenger cars, these targets will be further reduced by 15% for 2025, and by 37% for 2030 (compared to 2021). The regulation also sets charges for exceeding the emission targets: each additional gram of CO₂ / km x EUR 95 x the number of newly registered vehicles.

Values of average specific emissions of Volkswagen Group manufacturers for the calendar year 2016

_{https://eur-lex.europa.eu/}

4.2. EU limits for CO2 emissions

2020: 95 g CO₂ /km (~ 4 l/100 km petrol, ~ 3,6 l/100 km oil)
2030: 59 g CO₂ /km (~ 2,5 l/100 km petrol, ~ 2,2 l/100 km oil)

Charges for exceeding emission targets

Each additional g CO₂ x EUR 95 x number of newly registered vehicles
REGULATION (EU) 2019/631 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 17 April 2019

_{https://eur-lex.europa.eu/}

5. Limiting factors for customers

People most often see the following disadvantages with electric vehicles:

limited driving range,
price,
charging time,
missing charging infrastructure.

_{http://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedStates/Local%20Assets/Documents/us_auto_DTTGlobalAutoSurvey_ElectricVehicles_100411.pdf}

6. Technology and marketing

Small city cars

From a technical point of view, the battery vehicle is suitable for small city cars:

low weight,
low average speed,
short driving range is sufficient (e.g. commuting to work, shopping, etc.).

From the point of view of marketing, however, such a car is very difficult to sell (the price will increase by about 3 - 4 times compared to the version with an internal combustion engine).

Luxury sports cars

Great performances
High speeds
Long range requirement

=> extreme demands on battery size

However, in terms of marketing, the car is salable. The properties of the electric drive give the car a significantly sportier character. The battery will not make the car more expensive by hundreds, but only by tens of percent.

_{https://www.volkswagen.de

https://www.tesla.com}

7. Examples for performance comparison



Porsche Taycan (460 – 560 kW)	Tesla Roadster (1 MW)	Toroidion (1 MW)

Tram Škoda 15T (720 kW)	Trolley bus Škoda 31Tr (250 kW)	Tank T-72 (630 kW)